淺談「假新聞」
最近上課時學到一個新單字「positionality」,讓我想到當前社群媒體上,不停看到的「fake news」——假新聞。
簡言之,「positionality」(位置性) 被定義為於種族、階級、性別、性取向以及能力等狀態中,創造你身分的社會與政治背景。位置性還描述了你的身分如何影響你對世界的理解與看法,以及潛在的偏見。
positionality 位置性;定位
https://terms.naer.edu.tw/detail/3390885/
https://www.lexico.com/definition/positionality
以下是我對「positionality」與 「fake news」的些許觀點:
“Fake news” has permeated all facets of life, ranging from social media interaction to presidential elections. Fake news can be defined as “fabricated information that mimics news media content in form but not in organizational process or intent” (Lazer et al., 2018, p. 1094). The creators and outlets of fake news do not ensure the accuracy and credibility of information, but rather disseminate misinformation or disinformation for purposes ranging from personal amusement to creating deceptions to achieve political aims. At times, fake news is created and disseminated by state or non-state actors using social media accounts and networks of bots designed to hijack feed algorithms of platforms such as Twitter or Facebook (Prier, 2017, p. 54). In the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign, Facebook estimated that up to 60 million bots were used to post political content. Some of the same bots were then used in an attempt to influence the 2017 French election (Lazer et al., 2018, p. 1095). Such campaigns can be understood as a form of information warfare, a comprehensive attempt to control and influence every facet of the information supply chain, thereby influencing public opinion and behaviors. (Prier, 2017, p. 54). Often, fake news is not directly created by actors that seek to manipulate but by journalists or content creators whose content favors or aligns with the narratives of these actors (Doshi, 2020).
從社群媒體的互動到總統選舉,「假新聞」(fake news)已滲透至生活的各個層面。假新聞可被定義為「在形式上而非組織過程或意圖上,模仿新聞媒體內容所捏造的資訊」(Lazer et al., 2018, p. 1094)。無論是出於個人愛好或為達政治目的而有所欺瞞,假新聞的製造者與傳播管道並不保證資訊的準確性與可信度,反而是為了散播錯誤訊息(misinformation)或扭曲訊息(disinformation)。有時,假新聞是由國家或非國家行為者(state or non-state actors)所製造與傳播,藉由社群媒體帳號及網絡機器人來劫持諸如臉書與推特等平臺的推送演算法(Prier, 2017, p. 54)。在2016年的美國總統大選中,臉書估計有多達6千萬個機器人被用來發布政治貼文。其中,有部分機器人被用於影響隔年的法國大選(Lazer et al., 2018, p. 1095)。此類行動可視為資訊戰(information warfare)的一種形式,一種對控制與影響資訊供應鏈各環節的全面嘗試,從而影響公眾輿論與行為(Prier, 2017, p. 54)。假新聞通常是由記者或內容創造者(content creators)所創造,而非試圖操弄的行為者,前者的內容偏好符合後者的敘事(Doshi, 2020)。
Nevertheless, while the term “fake news” is commonplace, there is no universal, measurable way to quantify the fakeness or truthfulness of news. There are many fact-checking and media-bias detection tools, but they cannot objectively detect and clarify the more subtle and nuanced aims of manipulative actors that play a crucial role in news production. It can also be argued that the veracity of news depends not only on the actors that seek to manipulate it, but also on the positionality of its consumers. Therefore, one’s initial line of defense against misleading news lies not in the plethora of fact-checking devices but more in one’s pre-existing dispositions and skills to think and act in response to misleading information. This ability can be referred to as critical thinking, which can be more concretely expounded as “reasonable and reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do” (Ennis, 2011, p. 15).
然而,即便「假新聞」一詞隨處可見,卻沒有統一、可衡量的方式來量化新聞的虛假性或真實性。目前有許多事實查核與媒體偏見檢測工具,但它們無法客觀地檢測與說明行為操弄者更狡猾、更細緻的目標,而這些操弄者往往在新聞的生產中發揮著重要作用。我們也可以說,新聞的真實性不僅取決於試圖操弄它的行為者,同時還取決於新聞受眾的位置性。因此,一個人對抗誤導性新聞的第一道防線,不在於這些五花八門的事實查核方式,反而在於個人所固有的性格,以及針對誤導性資訊的思考與行動等相關技能。這種能力可稱為批判性思考(critical thinking),意即「專注於決定相信什麼或做什麼的理性思考與反思性思考」(Ennis, 2011, p. 15)。
Taiwan, also known as the Republic of China (ROC), is at the forefront of information warfare. It is wedged between the geopolitical struggles of global and regional hegemonies such as the United States and China, the People's Republic of China (PRC). Compounding the matter are the Taiwan’s own political actors vying for influence and power. This struggle seeps into all aspects of life and practice, mainly manifesting itself on social media, a battleground of information warfare. The Ministry of Education of Taiwan is cognizant of these information campaigns, and efforts have been made to introduce media literacy into all parts of its education system. According to the ministry, the government has tried to promote media literacy education since 2000 (MOE, 2002, p. 1), with one of its primary goals to cultivate its “citizens” abilities for independent learning, critical thinking, and problem solving” (MOE, 2002, p. 2).
臺灣,也被稱為中華民國,正處於資訊戰的最前線。這是全球霸權與地區霸權之間——如美國與中國(中華人民共和國)——的地緣政治對抗。使問題惡化的是臺灣自身的政治行動者對影響力與權力的奪取。這場對抗遍布於現實生活的各個面向,主要於社群媒體中——資訊戰的戰場——展露無遺。臺灣的教育部注意到了這些資訊的煙硝,並已努力將媒體素養引入其教育體系。據該部稱,自2000年以來,政府一直試圖推展媒體素養教育(MOE, 2002, p. 1),其主要目標之一是培養「公民獨立學習、批判性思考以及解決問題的能力。」(MOE, 2002, p. 2)。
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上述段落認為,由於個人的位置性(positionality),「假新聞」極難定義。此外,有許多人把不符合自身成見與偏好的新聞逕斥為假新聞。這其實相當危險,因為個人觀點將會變得愈發孤立與激進。
閱聽人應意識到,他們在網路上看到的每個資訊都有特定立場。是否真有毫無立場的新聞文章?為了對抗操弄性或強制性資訊(coercive information),我們必須意識到權力於個中的作用,以及我們自身的位置性如何形塑我們的詮釋。這是我們的第一道防線。
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參考文獻
Doshi, R. (2020, January). China steps up its information war in Taiwan. Foreign Affairs. Retrieved March, 21, 2021, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2020-01-09/china-steps-its-information-war-taiwan
Ennis, R. H. (1985). A logical basis for measuring critical thinking skills. Educational leadership, 43(2), 44-48.
Lazer, D. M., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F., ... & Zittrain, J. L. (2018). The science of fake news. Science, 359(6380), 1094-1096.
MOE (Ministry of Education), Taiwan. (2002). White paper on media literacy educational policy. Retrieved March, 21, 2021, from http://english.moe.gov.tw/public/Attachment/ 2122416591771.pdf
Prier, J. (2017). Commanding the trend: Social media as information warfare. Strategic Studies Quarterly: SSQ, 11(4), 50-85.
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[10 Leadership traits that we could learned from the 7th Prime Minister Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad]
9th May 2018, the day Malaysians witnessed unbelievable radical change for the first time in the political history of this country.
And how did this all happen? It took one MAN with a VISION on a MISSION to help REFORM MALAYSIA and of course with the vote from the people.
Reflecting on the recent scenario that has impacted every individual in this thriving nation, both rivals and supporters are impressed by the leadership of one man to bring about change in the next 5 years.
Now what makes this man so remarkable and to be the talk of the town and the world is his compelling LEADERSHIP.
That’s one reason why I love observing leaders. I enjoy reading and following their journey. Being able to reflect on the reasons I admire countless leaders opens my eyes to the qualities of Great Leadership.
What makes a Great Leader?
As far as I can recall, my childhood years till I was a young adult were during the 22 years reign of Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad as the 4th Prime Minister back then.
In general, life for Malaysians were rather peaceful with a sense of growth and progress for the country though there may be differing opinions on this subject.
Since then, I have always admired Tun as a great leader to this country. I was so inspired by him so much so that I even adapted my signature similar to his.
Today, in my private circle business coaching and mentoring session, I laid down 10 things that Tun has done right in “leading” the changes in the government together with all the parties that were once his foe and opponents.
How could this be possible?
It wouldn’t have materialized unless it’s being done by a person who has great leadership traits. And this brings my point to how you could apply these traits at work and in leading your businesses, organizations and team.
1. The Power of Alignment - Setting a clear Vision.
A great leader possesses a clear vision. He is courageous to lead that vision and has a clear focus of what needs to be done to attain that vision.
In many circumstances in the past few weeks leading to the elections, we saw one very clear role that Tun and his team of leaders had. They all led the role of articulating a clear vision for the future of Malaysia with a 100-day manifesto and this short-term vision gave hope to Malaysians of what Malaysia could be in the next 5 years to come if they are the governing administration.
Tun not only united the parties for a common goal but he was able to influence and unite the hearts of the rakyat to achieve this one similar vision – to REFORM MALAYSIA.
Likewise, in business, the power of alignment between a leader and the team plays a significant role in ensuring the vision, goals and objectives are met.
2. Identifying the same purpose - The Big Why and the common frustrations.
What are the main drivers of frustration for your team at the work place? What are the frustrations of your clients? In this context, what are the common frustrations of the rakyat. What are the common identifiable struggles? What's the future frustration if the problem is not resolved now?
Identifying the root problem is the foundation of addressing the common frustration as the livelihood of the rakyat depends on this. Likewise, if you don’t know what the critical issues and problems are faced by your team and clients within your organization, they will resort to other leaders, other products and brands or to any other available options to help them solve their frustrations.
That's why understanding, identifying, and eliminating the causes of frustration is critical for success.
Being a leader requires a lot of soft skills as you need to make sure that your team is comfortable with the goals that you are setting for the team. What is the Big Why for your team? Your organization? Why do you do what you do?
Leaders need to have a better working strategy and make sure that each and every one on the team is focused on achieving the same Big Why and results. This is what separates a high performing team from failing or underachieving.
Common goals are important not only because it gives your team focus on the big picture but because it brings people together and encourage them to communicate problems and results. This allows for a much earlier and faster recognition of problems to address as you progress to achieve your goals.
An obvious thing we have witnessed is the common goals and frustrations addressed by Tun and the party leaders. If that connection wasn’t clear, they would have been on shaky grounds. And by addressing the frustrations of the rakyat, they have minimized and eliminated fear, doubts and uncertainty about the rakyat’s future.
As such, it is critical to identify the common values of your team members. Goals need to be aligned with common values or you definitely won’t get people buying in.
3. Harnessing teamwork by negotiating for one coalition on an agreed and acceptable win-win formula for all parties involved.
Being a strategic planner, Tun first garnered teamwork by uniting the 4 parties to be represented as 1 united coalition for the 14th General Elections. By doing this, he had reduced confusion among the voters and lessened the dispersion of votes. So, voters did not have to decide among the 4, they just had to choose 1 unified party.
Imagine if Tun had not done so, the voters would have been undecided to elect their representatives as there are about 9-10 parties including the independent candidates.
It was definitely not an easy feat to unite the 4 parties as one, and this leads me to my next point – the negotiation skills of a leader, his ability to influence without authority and his proposed winning formula for one coalition.
4. Negotiate with the decision makers, the right people with influence over others.
A key skill relevant to leaders at all levels is the ability to positively influence people in such a way that others follow and act willingly, as opposed to complying because of the authority factor. This is the power to influence others without imposing your authority.
It’s a great skill that you could develop over time and with experience but it’s definite a powerful skill to have when you are able to influence others to voluntarily and willing act out of their own will just by sharing your vision or negotiating for common values and benefits.
Enemies. Rivals. Adversaries. Foes. Competitors. Haters. Critics. Skeptics. Sadly, in politics and business, we all have them.
They make our lives more difficult and less pleasant. And regrettably, enemies will always exist in your life. But they are just an additional obstacle on the way towards your goal. If you look for solutions, you can defeat them or make them your allies. We all have the ability to win over our enemies.
Let me explain. Here’s how. Win them over with cooperation.
Sometimes you can’t ignore them. If so, it is better to enlist the help of these people, rather than oppose them. Tell them that you understand their concerns. But tell them too that their help and support is very important to you. This is where the power to negotiate comes to play.
You must first understand your rivals. Who are they? What are they goals? Why do they oppose you? It’s the same scenario in the work place. Your rivals could be your colleague, your boss, a customer or anyone related to your work and business. Study them, their strengths and weaknesses and propose your winning formula for cooperation that benefits both you and your rival.
With great humility, Tun met his opponents requesting for cooperation. As we know, the opponents and Tun himself have had a painful past and unpleasant experiences, but for a common goal, they are willing to be professionally united though with differences in opinions. They are willing to let go of the past to achieve a higher goal that mutually benefits everyone for the future.
5. Lead from the front. Be the example.
The key factor to any leader is connection to the people they are leading. Who are the people that you are leading and do they believe in you? To be a great leader, first and foremost, mutual trust between you and your team is essential.
Nobody is going to give their all for a leader who can’t be forthright with the information or fails to keep up their end of a deal. Responsibility and dependability are critical traits of a great leader, and it earns respect from those who are working with you to achieve your vision.
At the end of the day, the key to effective leadership is commitment to the cause, being the first on and the last off the battlefield.
Did Tun and the party leaders portray this? Definitely they have led by example. They did their homework, they met the rakyat at grass-root level, they addressed their concerns, they communicated clearly with everyone and they shared with clarity how they plan to resolve the problems of the rakyat.
Is that a winning formula? I would say yes.
6. Declaring the winning manifesto which reflected the key frustrations of the people. Understanding what people want.
Why is it important to understand what people want? What do your clients or customers want? What do your employees want?
Basically, the social perception involves you as a leader being able to identify the mental states of others, their thoughts by putting yourself in someone else's shoes. This helps us understand their beliefs, feelings, experiences and intentions.
By understanding someone means you have the ability to empathize with that person. You are able to think along the lines of what the other person is thinking. You are able to reason out what transpired in someone’s mind before doing what they have done.
For example, understanding why did the rakyat protest the previous government? Or why did your customer buy from a competitor? Why did your employees leave?
Understanding with empathy is important because it helps us understand how others are feeling so we can respond appropriately to the situation. When you are able to empathize with others, you can build and sustain meaningful relationships, hold a job, or client effectively.
And the winning formula with the rakyat was creating a manifesto that understands and empathizes the rakyat’s frustrations.
7. Tun has been consistent in “advising” and “demanding for changes” up to the point that he is even willing to do whatever it takes to create the change.
Tun had always been outspoken in his views with regards to the progress of the country and the direction that the nation was heading to even long after his retirement 15 years ago.
He was always consistent in championing causes for the rakyat’s future. He wrote on his blogs, he spoke in public, he addressed the media, he collaborated with people, he met his opponents with humility, he admitted and apologized for his past mistakes, he adapted technology, he embraced young people, he in fact did everything possible to ensure he achieved his goal. And that every effort he built consistently over 15 years gave him his biggest victory.
Similarly, growing and running a business takes a tremendous amount of roll-up-your-sleeves and hard work. The long hours and "do whatever it takes to get the job done" work ethic is important to achieve success especially in the early phase of your business.
And as leaders and entrepreneurs, if you're going to do it, do it well, do it right. Be a role model for others to follow. You have to push yourself to be the best in what you do and stay laser-focused till you achieve success.
8. Push till the last mile. Never give up.
Sometimes, there comes times in the lives of all great leaders when they are pushed to their physical, emotional, mental or spiritual limits. Fatigued, exhausted and drained by their experiences, they still relentlessly pursue their journey. They never give up. It is their attitude and mindset to hold on to their hopes, dreams, determination and life’s purpose.
When the rakyat was rather uncertain on the victory rate of Tun and his party due to various known and unknown factors, Tun and his team still pursued relentlessly to campaign till the last mile. They exhausted every single medium, resources and people to reach out to the rakyat to champion for a common goal.
We`ve seen the content on social media, the virality of the news, the uprising of the rakyat and the gathering by thousands of people all over the country in very medium and platform.
The leaders were willing to sacrifice their time, resources, energy and effort to be that servant leader of love, caring and hope for the rakyat.
Would you do the same for your people, your team or your customers?
9. Constantly updating and communicating the progress. To build trust, confidence and to gain more support.
Communication is at the core of every political campaign. Certainly, issues like the economy, GST, unemployment, money laundering and policies matter, but the way Tun and the leaders conveyed their ideas to the voters hinges their success and ability to communicate messages effectively to the people.
Today, political parties no longer determine the election. The leaders and candidates must appeal to the voters directly and with greater frequency. They have to sell themselves to grab people's attention. And we’ve seen in the recent elections how social media has aided these leaders in their quest to effectively engage voters.
Leaders are communicators. Their key responsibilities are to “communicate, communicate and communicate even more.” Why? Because communication is fundamental to building trust.
It creates an environment of trust around leaders that enables them to lead effectively, engage employees and ultimately deliver results. And building trust in an organization requires a personal effort on the part of the leaders themselves besides a team effort.
10. Committed to Leadership
What does it mean to be a committed leader?
First of all, making a commitment involves dedicating yourself to a person, to something or to a cause. A commitment obligates you to do something. And leadership is a decision and obligation that you have towards others.
Are you prepared to lead the way to whatever you believe is right? We've all worked with leaders who show up every day with such determination, and others who are just there. Real leaders accept responsibility as the heads of their teams, and they're always working to do things better.
And once you've made that deliberate decision to be a leader, you must accept that the expectations are higher for you than for everyone else in your organization. You have a duty to your team, your customers, and your community.
To make a vision stick, you have to be committed to a set of core values that will bring the vision to life.
You need to understand that the values that you uphold as a leader will determine the behaviors, the culture and the success of your organization.
And when you do all that, your customers, your team and your people can see the difference.
As leaders and entrepreneurs, you must remember that you are not here merely to make a living or achieve your own success. You are here in order to enable the world to live more abundantly, with greater vision, with a greater spirit of hope and achievement. You are here to enrich the world with your presence.
And that is what we see in Tun’s leadership. “Tun walk the talk.”
A wise quote from Ronald Reagan, the 40th U.S. President, “The greatest leader is not necessarily the one who does the greatest things. He is the one that gets the people to do the greatest things."
Didn’t we all witness this on 9th May 2018? This day will be a day in the history of our country and the world for generations to come, and it is all because of one remarkable man and a great leader, Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad.
Azizan Osman
Founder, Richworks International
Entrepreneur & SME Business Training & Coaching Consultant Firm
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The writer is a renowned world class Business & Marketing Growth Strategist & Accredited International Master Coach for Entrepreneurs & Small & Medium Businesses
Any opinions, findings, and conclusion or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author for the purpose of education on leadership.
Forbes Asia Astro AWANI The Economist The Star Online New Straits Times Online Dr. Mahathir bin Mohamad Mukhriz Mahathir
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If You’re Not Yet A Strategic Thinker, How Can You Still Become Successful? Click Here To Take Dan’s FREE Quiz And Discover Your Best High-Income Skill For Financial Success And Confidence: http://strategicthinker.danlok.link
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He’s been in business for over 20 years and his results are not typical.
Most people who watch his videos or enroll in his programs get the “how to” but never take action with the information. Dan is only sharing what has worked for him and his students.
Your results are dependent on many factors… including but not limited to your ability to work hard, commit yourself, and do whatever it takes.
Entering any business is going to involve a level of risk as well as massive commitment and action. If you're not willing to accept that, please DO NOT WATCH DAN’S VIDEOS OR SIGN UP FOR ONE OF HIS PROGRAMS.
This video is about Want To Become A More Strategic Thinker? Do This...
https://youtu.be/rsaSOL3qOgc
https://youtu.be/rsaSOL3qOgc
strategic thinking skills 在 Dan Lok Youtube 的評價
Do You Know the 5 Levels Of Strategic Thinking For Entrepreneurs? For More High-Level Business Advice, Join The Next SMART Challenge Here: https://strategicthinking.danlok.link
As an entrepreneur, your success is tied to how you think. There are 5 levels of strategic thinking that you want to know and use. Watch the video all the way to the end to discover all 5 levels of strategic thinking.
? SUBSCRIBE TO DAN'S YOUTUBE CHANNEL NOW ?
https://www.youtube.com/danlok?sub_confirmation=1
? Join my YouTube Membership to get access to EXCLUSIVE perks ?
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCs_6DXZROU29pLvgQdCx4Ww/join
Check out these Top Trending Playlists -
1.) Boss In The Bentley - https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLEmTTOfet46OWsrbWGPnPW8mvDtjge_6-
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Dan Lok has been viewed more than 1.7+ billion times across social media for his expertise on how to achieve financial confidence. And is the author of over a dozen international bestselling books.
Dan has also been featured on FOX Business News, MSNBC, CBC, FORBES, Inc, Entrepreneur, and Business Insider.
In addition to his social media presence, Dan Lok is the founder of the Dan Lok Organization, which includes more than two dozen companies - and is a venture capitalist currently evaluating acquisitions in markets such as education, new media, and software.
Some of his companies include Closers.com, Copywriters.com, High Ticket Closers, High Income Copywriters and a dozen of other brands.
And as chairman of DRAGON 100, the world’s most exclusive advisory board, Dan Lok also seeks to provide capital to minority founders and budding entrepreneurs.
Dan Lok trains as hard in the Dojo as he negotiates in the boardroom. And thus has earned himself the name; The Asian Dragon.
If you want the no b.s. way to master your financial destiny, then learn from Dan. Subscribe to his channel now.
★☆★ CONNECT WITH DAN ON SOCIAL MEDIA ★☆★
YouTube: http://youtube.danlok.link
Dan Lok Blog: http://blog.danlok.link
Dan Lok Shop: https://shop.danlok.link
Facebook: http://facebook.danlok.link
Instagram: http://instagram.danlok.link
Linkedin: http://mylinkedin.danlok.link
Podcast: http://thedanlokshow.danlok.link
#DanLok #StrategicThinking #Entrepreneur
Please understand that by watching Dan’s videos or enrolling in his programs does not mean you’ll get results close to what he’s been able to do (or do anything for that matter).
He’s been in business for over 20 years and his results are not typical.
Most people who watch his videos or enroll in his programs get the “how to” but never take action with the information. Dan is only sharing what has worked for him and his students.
Your results are dependent on many factors… including but not limited to your ability to work hard, commit yourself, and do whatever it takes.
Entering any business is going to involve a level of risk as well as massive commitment and action. If you're not willing to accept that, please DO NOT WATCH DAN’S VIDEOS OR SIGN UP FOR ONE OF HIS PROGRAMS.
This video is about The 5 Levels of Strategic Thinking for Entrepreneurs.
https://youtu.be/Ggdq5-CORss
https://youtu.be/Ggdq5-CORss
strategic thinking skills 在 Henry Sir & Friends Youtube 的評價
2013 Henry Sir LS Intensive Course 登場!!!
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SYSTEMATIC ISSUE ANALYSIS 「系統性議題分析法 」
SOURCE INTERPRETATION SKILLS 「資料分析整合大法」
CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS 「通識考試專用批判性思考法」
IDEA GENERATION SKILLS 「神奇催Point大法」
POINT ELABORATION SKILLS 「漢堡包思維法+推論技巧」
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[Class A] 10:00am-11:30am (12/1/2013開班)- 尚餘少量
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strategic thinking skills 在 What is Strategic Thinking? - YouTube 的八卦
How do we get there? Strategic Thinking means more than just taking things step by step. It means developing plans and methods of management ... ... <看更多>