expression vector的八卦，Yahoo名人娛樂都在討論

繼鄧學長貢獻了「俐媽英文教室醫學檢驗篇」之後，姜學長也做了補充🙏🏼
以前都是我一個人努力出英文大餐，現在有了各領域的徒子徒孫一起共襄盛舉，俐媽不孤單，大餐也更精彩了！
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🔗 俐媽英文教室—生物技術篇：
🧬 Cloning 克隆操作實驗相關:
1. Vector 載體；媒介；另有向量的意思
2. Plasmid 質體
3. Restriction Enzyme 限制酶
4. Ligation 連接 (常用於描述DNA片段黏合到質體上的手法)
5. Screen 篩選 (Blue and white Screen: 藍白篩選)
6. Gel electrophoresis 膠體電泳(分離不同DNA/RNA/蛋白質分子大小之技術)
7. Transcription 轉錄 (遺傳資訊由DNA複製到RNA的過程)
8. Translation 轉譯 (遺傳資訊由RNA合成多肽/蛋白質的過程)
9. Transformation 轉型作用 (細胞攝取外源遺傳物質之過程, 多用於細菌、植物細胞)
10. Transfection 轉染作用 (將外源基因/質體以非病毒方法植入細胞的過程, 較用於動物細胞)
11. Transduction 轉導作用 (以病毒相關方法將外源遺傳物質植入細胞的過程)
12. Electroporation 電穿孔技術
13. Resistance 抗性 (antibiotic resistance 抗藥性)
14. Cell culture 細胞培養
15. Incubation 培養 (原意為incubate孵化)
16. Expression 表現 (Gene expression 基因表現；overexpression 過量表現)
17. Gene knock-out 基因剔除
18. Extract (V./N.) 抽取，萃取/抽出物 (DNA/RNA/protein/其他; 名詞Extraction指的是抽出的動作)
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🧪 PCR = polymerase chain reaction 聚合酶鏈鎖反應
步驟下分為：
1. Denaturation 變性→ Denature (vt.) 改變…特性
2. Annealing 黏合
3. Elongation 延長→ Elongate (vt./vi.) 延長
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✏️ 俐媽英文教室歡迎大家踴躍投稿！
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#俐媽英文教室 #俐媽英文教室醫學檢驗篇 #俐媽英文教室生物科技篇 #俐媽英文教室生物技術篇 #cloning

在臉書河道看到的一篇文章，發文的人翻譯了一則外國人的發文：
https://m.facebook.com/story.php?story_fbid=10158846902129328&id=602809327

我有在外國人的發文底下留言，可惜不能在這個翻譯的人底下留言，所以我打在這邊。

首先 #疫苗 是什麼？這個google很容易，高中生物應該也有提過，疫苗的發展大約兩百年，前一百年只有不活化疫苗和減毒疫苗，後一百年才陸續研發了純化蛋白疫苗以及基因工程疫苗等等。

再來了解疫苗的分類：
#活疫苗 有不活化與減毒活疫苗、異質性活疫苗（例如牛痘）
#死疫苗 有死毒疫苗、死菌疫苗、次單位疫苗（細分 類毒素疫苗、基因工程重組蛋白疫苗、胜肽疫苗、基因轉殖植物性疫苗、基因型疫苗或抗基因型抗體）、多核苷或DNA疫苗、載體疫苗、標記疫苗、mRNA疫苗（近十年嶄新研究）。

（附上大學課本疫苗發展與實驗內頁比較圖)

基因疫苗自1992年首次在科學文獻報告至今，已經成為最熱門的疫苗研究新方向，目前包括傳染性疾病、癌症、過敏症與自體免疫性疾病，以廣泛進行基因疫苗的臨床前或臨床研究並獲得良好的結果。

發文的人顯然不懂疫苗有分活疫苗跟死疫苗，也不懂mRNA疫苗不等於活疫苗，應該也不懂免疫學。

這篇錯誤訊息蠻多的，可以參考國衛院的說明
https://forum.nhri.org.tw/covid19/j_translate/j2022/

當年大學學習時就知道了，疫苗的研發與應用的智慧，基因疫苗的作用原理與傳統疫苗不同。
傳統死毒疫苗或者重組蛋白疫苗，病毒抗原是由體外注射到人體，經由巨噬細胞等抗原呈現細胞（APC cell)吞噬後，被分解的抗原片段經MHC2（組織相容性複合體第二型）呈現給T cell。此種免疫反應是以引發輔助T cell，產生抗體為主的免疫反應。

而基因疫苗是在進入細胞後於細胞質表現抗原蛋白，這些內生性蛋白有部分會被酵素分解成蛋白片段，在內質網和MHC1結合以後呈現在細胞膜上，藉此和殺手T細胞表面受器結合，活化殺手T細胞，引發細胞毒殺作用。
基因疫苗也能引發MHC2抗體反應，因此基因疫苗可以同時引發抗體反應和殺手T細胞反應。

2018年發表的文獻指出mRNA疫苗的優點：
Over the past decade, major technological innovation and research investment have enabled mRNA to become a promising therapeutic tool in the fields of vaccine development and protein replacement therapy. The use of mRNA has several beneficial features over subunit, killed and live attenuated virus, as well as DNA-based vaccines. First, safety: as mRNA is a non-infectious, non-integrating platform, there is no potential risk of infection or insertional mutagenesis. Additionally, mRNA is degraded by normal cellular processes, and its in vivo half-life can be regulated through the use of various modifications and delivery methods. The inherent immunogenicity of the mRNA can be down-modulated to further increase the safety profile. Second, efficacy: various modifications make mRNA more stable and highly translatable. Efficient in vivo delivery can be achieved by formulating mRNA into carrier molecules, allowing rapid uptake and expression in the cytoplasm (reviewed in Refs 10,11). mRNA is the minimal genetic vector; therefore, anti-vector immunity is avoided, and mRNA vaccines can be administered repeatedly. Third, production: mRNA vaccines have the potential for rapid, inexpensive and scalable manufacturing, mainly owing to the high yields of in vitro transcription reactions.

1. 安全性，非感染性活體病毒，沒有潛在感染跟插入誘導基因改變的風險。
2. 穩定且可製成載體進入細胞質中，屬於最小的mRNA載體。（過往的基因疫苗都是需要plasmid DNA載體DNA，多一個步驟。）
3. 沒有抗載體的免疫反應，因此不用擔心anti-vector immunity。不會有過敏或者自體免疫產生。
4. 生產也很便利快速。

美國食品與藥物管理局特別針對基因疫苗的安全性、潛力與免疫能力制定相關規定，”Points to Consider on Plasmid DNA Vaccines for Preventive Infections Disease Indication”，作為研究基因疫苗時的參考指標。

相關文獻references:
1. Donnelly,J.J.,J.B. Ulmer, J.W. Shiver, and M.A. Liu. 1997. DNA vaccines. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 15:617-48.

2. Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-, and helper T-lymphocyte-oriented DNA vaccination
Toshi Nagata et al. DNA Cell Biol. 2004 Feb.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15000749/

3. mRNA vaccines — a new era in vaccinology
https://www.nature.com/articles/nrd.2017.243

看過一些數據，一年中死於化療的數字比本身癌症還多。

【美國終於承認手術或化療後癌細胞反而加速擴散】 - 路透社報道

科學家一項最近研究發現，有些癌症患者在接受手術、化療或放療後，癌細胞反而加速擴散，造成這種現象的原因之一是人體一種名為TGF-be-ta物質。因此，控制TGF-be-ta物質在人體內的含量，才是治癒癌症的關鍵。

來自美國田納西州範德比爾特大學的研究人員在老鼠身上試驗發現，患有乳腺癌的老鼠在服用化療物質“阿黴素”或接受放療後，體內的TGF-be-ta物質含量提高，刺激癌細胞向肺部轉移。而使用某種抗體抑制它們體內的TGF-be-ta含量則能夠遏制癌細胞擴散。

參考連結：Inhibition of TGF-β with neutralizing antibodies prevents radiation-induced acceleration of metastatic cancer progression

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1838926/

此前有科學家提出，動物體內的原發性腫瘤可能會抑制其他腫瘤生長，但一旦原發性腫瘤被從體內清除，其他被抑制腫瘤可能會就此瘋長。而科學此次研究顯示，TGF-be-ta就是這樣一種既能抑制腫瘤生長，也能刺激癌細胞擴散的物質。

主持研究的卡洛斯.。啊特亞加博士補充說，可能還有其他物質與TGF-be-ta一樣對癌症的治療有類此的影響。他們希望通過對TGF-be-ta的研究得出更多結論。 以上訊息在10月8日的《參考訊息》報也有報導。

看來主張手術或放化療治療癌症的人，良心終於被發現了。 人類自從3000年前發明瞭藥物以來，200年前發現了抗生素，人類的疾病就更複雜，更多，更難治。

很多慢性病，免疫系統紊亂症，都與藥物和抗生素的濫用有很大的關係。人的耐藥性越強。人就更難戰勝病魔。而癌症自然也有它的天敵。眾所周知醫學界對癌症束手無策。

醫學界奪命奪錢三招“手術、化療、放療”。目前醫學科技很發達，世界各國投入無數財力物力去研究醫學，但是卻對絕大多數的慢性疾病無能為力，這不能不說是個人類天大的笑話。

1、成年人每人每天都有3000-6000個癌細胞產生（由於基因突變而讓正常細胞變成癌細胞，基因突變原因很多，化學藥物，肉類，動物荷爾蒙、空氣汙染等等）。

２、但人每一天誕生的癌細胞幾乎都被人體自身自然殺手細胞（NK細胞）殺滅了。所以不是人人都會患上癌症.當免疫系統下降，也就是自然殺手細胞弱了，癌細胞就佔上風。久而久之5-10年以上就會得到癌症.如果我們能讓癌症病人身體裡的自然殺手細胞變強，恢復活力，對付癌症是簡單的事。

所以癌症病人只能靠自己也就是自身免疫細胞－自然殺手細胞（NK細胞）來對付癌症。
　　
３、讓自然殺手細胞（NK細胞）恢復活力的唯一途徑是營養70%、心情10%、運動10%、休息10%（世界衛生組織的健康的四大基石）。

４、只要有充足的營養,自然細胞就能恢復到以前的活力來殺滅癌細胞。（這個世界一物降一物，但一物應該是人體的細胞而不是藥物，也不是植物，更不是動物。人的免疫細胞是可以對付世界上所有的病毒和細菌，比如非典病毒，艾滋病毒，埃博拉病毒，流感病毒，關鍵是人的免疫細胞要足夠的強。例外：但人的免疫細胞沒有辦法對付毒藥。

５、醫學上常規不得已用藥物和化療、放療、電療方法，除了把癌細胞部分殺滅外，反而把正常的大量的自然殺手細胞殺滅.醫學界奪命奪錢三招“手術、化療、放療”！所以手術藥物和化療放療有時能減輕病人的痛苦同時反而加速癌症病人的死亡.

６、為什麼國內的癌症研究者都是研究藥物如何殺滅癌細胞（治標）。為什麼不能研究讓人體內的自然殺手細胞增強來殺滅癌細胞呢（治本）?只有0.5%的經過化療放療的病人能活過超過5年！！

７、世界上最好的醫生是自己的免疫系統、免疫細胞，而不是醫生和藥物！！只有本人的免疫系統（自然殺手免疫細胞）才能殺滅癌細胞。可是藥物和化放療卻會快速讓人的免疫系統下降。

８、請癌症病人去新華書店購買《營養免疫學》陳昭妃癌症研究博士著，《不要讓不懂營養學的醫生殺了你》雷.D.斯全德醫學博士著。《別讓醫生殺了你》, 《食物是最好的醫生》,《醫生對你隱瞞了什麼》...等最新學科書籍。但是闡述得最完整最好的還是《營養免疫學》這本書。
　　
９ 四大基石裡的休息和運動促使免疫力提高。晚上安靜下來睡覺的時候，是人體內免疫細胞正在大量修復身體破損的細胞的時候，所以晚上也是最需要休息和營養的時候。
　　
１０、偶然我們在報上看到有些極少數癌症病人得了癌症不治,反而過了幾年後身體的癌症症狀全無,經檢測沒有癌細胞的存在.這是因為這個癌症病人平常的飲食心情運動休息讓體內的自然殺手細胞得到增強來殺滅癌細胞.也就是自愈力了——自已治病的能力。治癌不能靠高科技，而只能靠自然的力量、自身的力量。

Inhibition of TGF-β with neutralizing antibodies prevents radiation-induced acceleration of metastatic cancer progression

Abstract
We investigated whether TGF-β induced by anticancer therapies accelerates tumor progression. Using the MMTV/PyVmT transgenic model of metastatic breast cancer, we show that administration of ionizing radiation or doxorubicin caused increased circulating levels of TGF-β1 as well as increased circulating tumor cells and lung metastases. These effects were abrogated by administration of a neutralizing pan–TGF-β antibody. Circulating polyomavirus middle T antigen–expressing tumor cells did not grow ex vivo in the presence of the TGF-β antibody, suggesting autocrine TGF-β is a survival signal in these cells. Radiation failed to enhance lung metastases in mice bearing tumors that lack the type II TGF-β receptor, suggesting that the increase in metastases was due, at least in part, to a direct effect of TGF-β on the cancer cells. These data implicate TGF-β induced by anticancer therapy as a prometastatic signal in tumor cells and provide a rationale for the simultaneous use of these therapies in combination with TGF-β inhibitors.

Go to:
Introduction
TGF-β is both a tumor suppressor and a tumor promoter. The TGF-β ligands bind to cognate serine/threonine kinase transmembrane receptors, which in turn phosphorylate and activate the Smad family of signal transducers. Once activated, Smad2 and Smad3 associate with Smad4 and translocate to the nucleus, where they regulate the transcription of genes involved in cell cycle arrest and apoptosis (1), essential for the tumor suppressor role of the TGF-βs. Indeed, loss or attenuation of TGF-β signaling in epithelial cells and stroma is permissive for epithelial cell transformation (2, 3). On the other hand, introduction of dominant-negative TGF-β receptors into metastatic cancer cells has been shown to inhibit epithelial-to-mesenchymal transdifferentiation, motility, invasiveness, and survival, supporting the tumor promoter role in TGF-β in fully transformed cells (reviewed in ref. 4). Most carcinomas retain TGF-β receptors but attenuate or lose the Smad-dependent antimitogenic effect while, in some cases, gaining prometastatic abilities in response to TGF-β. In addition, excess production and/or activation of TGF-β by cancer cells can contribute to tumor progression by paracrine mechanisms involving modulation of the tumor microenvironment (2, 5, 6). These data have provided a rationale in favor of blockade of autocrine/paracrine TGF-β signaling in human cancers with a therapeutic intent.

In addition to Smads, TGF-β can stimulate several transforming signaling pathways (7). TGF-β has previously been shown to protect transformed cells from apoptosis (8–10). One possible mechanism for this cellular response is TGF-β–induced activation of PI3K and its target, the serine-threonine kinase Akt (11, 12), a signaling program associated with resistance to anticancer drugs. Some tumors resistant to conventional anticancer chemotherapy overexpress TGF-βs (13, 14), and inhibitors of TGF-β have been shown to reverse this resistance (15). In addition, overexpression of TGF-β ligands have been reported in most cancers, and high levels of these in tumor tissues and/or serum are associated with early metastatic recurrences and/or poor patient outcome (16–21).

In transgenic models of breast cancer, TGF-β signaling enhances the metastatic progression of established mammary tumors induced by oncogenes such as Neu/ErbB2 or polyomavirus middle T antigen (PyVmT) (22–24). Furthermore, in transgenic mice expressing the PyVmT oncogene under the control of the MMTV/LTR mammary promoter, conditional induction of active TGF-β1 for as little as 2 weeks increases lung metastases by more than 10-fold (10). Some anticancer therapies have been shown to induce TGF-β systemically or in situ (25–28). Therefore, we speculated that in tumors resistant to anticancer therapies or in resistant subpopulations within those tumors, treatment-induced TGF-β would provide a survival signal to cancer cells potentially accelerating tumor progression immediately after therapy. Using the MMTV/PyVmT transgenic model of metastatic breast cancer, we show here that administration of ionizing radiation or doxorubicin caused increased circulating levels of TGF-β1 as well as increased circulating tumor cells and lung metastases. These effects were abrogated by administration of a neutralizing pan–TGF-β antibody. Radiation did not increase lung metastases in mice bearing tumors that lack the type II TGF-β receptor (TβRII). These data implicate TGF-β induced by anticancer therapy as a prometastatic signal in tumors and thus provide a rationale for the simultaneous use of these therapies in combination with TGF-β inhibitors.

Go to:
Results
Thoracic radiation and chemotherapy increase circulating TGF-β1.

We administered 10 Gy to the thoraxes or pelvises of 8-week-old FVB virgin female mice. Blood was collected 24 hours after irradiation. We observed an approximate 2-fold increase in plasma TGF-β1 in irradiated mice over controls regardless of the site of radiation (thorax, P = 0.03; pelvis, P = 0.02; Figure Figure1A),1A), while TGF-β2 levels did not change (data not shown). Similar results were obtained in 8-week-old MMTV/PyVmT transgenic mice and in nontransgenic mice transplanted with MMTV/PyVmT tumor cells stably transfected with a luciferase expression vector (P = 0.015 and P = 0.007, respectively, versus controls; Figure Figure1B).1B). Levels of TGF-β1 remained higher than controls 7 days after radiation (data not shown). To expand these results to other anticancer therapies, we examined the effect of the DNA-intercalating agent and topoisomerase II inhibitor doxorubicin (Adriamycin). Transgenic mice were treated 3 times with doxorubicin (5 mg/kg i.p.) at 21-day intervals starting at week 8. In plasma collected on week 15, TGF-β1 was also elevated 2-fold compared with untreated mice (P = 0.009; Figure Figure1C),1C), whereas TGF-β2 levels remained constant. To measure activated TGF-β1 in the lung tissue harvested 5 weeks after radiation, we used a TGF-β1 bioassay that uses mink lung epithelial cells stably expressing a plasminogen activator inhibitor–1/luciferase reporter (PAI-1/luciferase reporter) (29). Tissue lysates from irradiated mouse lungs induced a 2-fold increase in active TGF-β1 compared with nonirradiated lung tissue lysates (P = 0.0008; Figure Figure1D). 1D).